Islam's Path East: China

Category: Asia, Featured, Life & Society Topics: History, Travel Views: 24689
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The majority of China's Muslims are Turkic peoples living in the vast Xinjiang region of northwest China. The rest are mainly Hui - either descendants of Chinese converts to Islam or the offspring of Chinese intermarriages with Muslim immigrants whose appearance is distinctly Chinese. They live in sizeable communities in the former Silk Road oases of western and central China, in the southern province of Yunnan, and in the industrial cities and ports of the east. 

Contacts between Muslims and Chinese began very early. Arab merchants traded in silk even before the advent of Islam, and tradition has it that the new religion was brought to their port-city trading colonies by Muslim missionaries in the seventh century.

In 755, a contingent of 4000 soldiers, mostly Muslim Turks, was sent by the Abbasid caliph Abu Jafar al-Mansur to help the Chinese emperor Su Tsung quell a revolt by one of his military commanders, An LuShan. Following the recapture of the imperial capital, Ch'angan (today's Xian), these soldiers settled in China, married Chinese wives and founded inland Muslim colonies similar to those established by the traders on the coast. 

Islam made its first real inroads into what is now western China in the middle of the 10th century, with the conversion of Sultan Sutuq Bughrakhan of Kashgar and his subsequent conquest of the Silk Road oases of Yarkand and Khotan in southwest Xinjiang. 

During the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), China experienced spectacular economic growth. This stimulated expansion of the Muslim mercantile communities - particularly in Ch'ang - an, the eastern terminus of the Silk Roads, and in the port cities of Quanzhou and Guangzhou, where Muslims largely governed the internal affairs of their own neighborhoods, building mosques and appointing qadis to adjudicate according to Islamic law.

But although some Chinese merchants involved in international trade did become Muslims, other converts were few, and Islam in China was confined largely to Muslim immigrants and their descendants. Until, that is, the Mongol invasion overthrew the Song Dynasty and ushered in what Chinese Muslims regard as the "golden age" of Islam in China.

Inscriptions on Muslim tombstones like the one at Guangzhou have helped scholars piece together the early history of lslam in Southeast Asia.

Although the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1260 - 1382), founded by Kublai Khan, was the only one of the four great Mongol khanates whose rulers never converted to Islam, they nevertheless gave Muslims special status, often-placing individual believers in responsible, even powerful, positions of state. In addition, when Yunnan fell to the Mongol invaders and most of its population fled, leaving an empty land, Kublai Khan sent the tough Muslim soldiers from Central Asia who had helped him conquer China to repopulate the south - though this was probably partly to keep them out of mischief and far from his own capital. It was also during the Mongol period that the Uighur Turks of northwestern China converted to Islam. 

Following the conversion of the Chaghatai Mongols of Central Asia in the 13th century, large stretches of northwest Xinjiang were won over to Islam. In 1513 the oasis of Hami in eastern Xinjiang put itself under the sovereignty of Mansur Chaghatai, who two years later made it his capital and a base from which to spread Islam even further east. The religion advanced as far as Lanzhou, in today's Gansu province, where a Muslim seminary still operates on the banks of the Yellow River. 

When the indigenous Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) overthrew the Mongols in their turn, however, the Muslims' position began to deteriorate. They lost their special status and under the Ch'ing, or Manchu, Dynasty (1644 - 1911) were so oppressed that they rebelled repeatedly - most notably in the Panthay Rebellion, which lasted from 1855 to 1873, but was crushed with great cruelty. Because of such repression, the Hui Muslims developed a strong sense of community, living in segregated enclaves usually focused on a single mosque. The roofs of their prayer halls flared, Buddhist-style, and their minarets were built like squat pagodas so as to blend with neighboring Chinese architecture. Mosques in the predominantly Uighur northwest maintained the traditional Muslim architectural style of domed roof and tall, slender minarets, however.

Mosques in China reflect a mixture of architectural styles, sometimes in the same building. The minaret of Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou (left) is simple and smoothly finished like traditional buildings of Arabia. Its courtyard, however (right) is purely Chinese in woodwork and rooflines.

In the 20th century, Muslims throughout China continued to practice their faith discreetly following the advent of Communism, despite the ideology's atheistic principles. But during the savagery and purges of the Cultural Revolution, between 1966 and 1971, most mosques were destroyed or closed down. Then, following the death of Mao Zedong, Muslims were again given a limited amount of religious freedom. Mosques and religious schools were reopened and few hundred  Muslims were permitted to make the pilgrimage to Makkah.

And when I visited China in 1984 with Nik Wheeler, to write and photograph a special issue of Aramco World on the country's Muslims, and again in 1987 with photographer Tor Eigeland to research another issue, on the Silk Roads, we found China's renovated mosques crowded and the call to prayer echoing once more from the minarets of the northwestern province.

In Beijing, also, we saw the recently repainted Niu Jie mosque, its pillars lacquered in red and gold and its walls covered with a mixture of Arab and Chinese motifs. In Man we watched workmen restoring the Great Mosque - China's largest - said to have been built by the 15th-century Muslim hero Cheng Ho, who cleared the South China Sea of pirates and rose to be admiral of the emperor's fleet. 

In Xinjiang we found that, despite government attempts to dilute the Muslim population by settling masses of Han Chinese among them, the region still retains a distinct Muslim atmosphere. Here the men wear gaily embroidered skullcaps and go regularly to the mosque to pray. They also proudly tell visitors that Wuer Kaixi, who headed the 1989 democracy movement that culminated in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, was a Uighur from Xinjiang. 

Grand Mosque in Xian, which has the elaborately flared eaves typical of Chinese pagodas.

Policies introduced by the Chinese government since then, limiting Muslim families to two children per couple in urban areas and three to four in rural areas, along with curbs on religious education, have caused new friction between the Uighurs and the Han Chinese. In the Xinjiang village of Baren last May, for example, 22 people died in clashes with security forces following Beijing's denial of permission to build a mosque. 

There was no sign of friction, however, when we arrived in Quanzhou, this year, on the last leg of our journey along Islam's path east. In fact, Hui Muslims played a prominent part in official ceremonies welcoming the UNESCO Silk Roads survey ship Fulk al-Salamah, which Wheeler and I had rejoined in Guangzhou, known in he West as Canton. 

Over 2400 kilometers (1500 miles) from Beijing and only a short train ride from Hong Kong, Guangzhou has always been more open to foreign influence than other Chinese cities, and its mosque is generally considered to be the oldest in China. Said to have been founded by one of the first Muslim missionaries to China some 1300 years ago, Huaisheng Mosque displays a mixture of architectural styles: a 36-meter (118-foot) cone shaped minaret, built during the Tang Dynasty (618 - 906), towers over a cloistered court-yard and the sweeping tiled roofs of the prayer hall, rebuilt to replace the original that was destroyed by fire in 1343. It is also known as the Beacon Tower mosque, because during the Tang and Sung Dynasties, when the Pearl River flowed close to the minaret - before silting shifted it away - a light was hung at night from the top of the tower for navigational purposes.

We sailed down the Pearl River estuary and out into the South China Sea, running into thick fog and then heavy rain as we approached Quanzhou. But it failed to dampen the spirited reception for the Fulk alSalaniah: massed bands, lion dancers, acrobats - and Hui Muslims - gathered jubilant at dockside.

A section from an early 19th-century Quran, with Chinese

Once one of the world's largest ports, Quanzhou reached the peak of its prosperity during the Sung Dynasty's commercial revolution, with Muslim merchants playing a leading role. Today, however, the bustle of big-time commerce has gone, leaving the city a rich cultural heritage of classical Chinese buildings and an opera unchanged in song, dance and music since the Ming era. 

Of the city's mosques, which once numbered seven, only one remains. But the massive granite walls of Masjid al-Ashab, built in 1009 in this, one of Islam's easternmost outposts, reflect the enduring vitality of a faith born in the deserts of Arabia and spread across Central Asia and India, all the way to China's Pacific shores. 

And that is only its diffusion in one direction: eastward. Islam's way west is another story.

Source: Aramco World

Experience the Islamic history of China on the

"2008 Muslim China Tour"

organized by IslamiCity.

Visit: http://www.islamicity.com/travel/china/


  Category: Asia, Featured, Life & Society
  Topics: History, Travel
Views: 24689

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Older Comments:
ABDULLAH FROM CHINA FROM CHINA said:
Error in the note to the first picture: Pearl River is in Guangzhou, not Quanzhou. Guangzhou and Quanzhou are probably the two coastal cities where the first fleet of Arabs and Persians landed in China through marine silk road.
2008-08-27

DEWI FEBI FROM INDONESIA said:
Islam, Muslim and their life in China are something that interest me all the time; for their culture, phylosophis and food. Many Chinese in my country are Buddhist or Christians. They often have pork in their meal. this is painful since Chinese food is one of my favourite meal. I always imagine of the Chinese halal food and how to make it, imagine myself as a Chinese Princess, too. Muslim Tour to China is brilliant, but I have to save money for my Hajj first. After that... who knows...
2008-05-31

YUSUF YANMING MA FROM CHINA said:
All the facts in the article are right and objective, excepet that "The majority of China's Muslims are Turkic peoples living in the vast Xinjiang region of northwest China. "
In fact, the majority of China'es Muslims are Hui Chinese,with a population of almost 20 million, scattered in most of provinces in China, speaking Chinese and varities of dialects. The population of the Turkic-speaking Muslims in Xingjiang is about 10 million (including, Uighur, Khazak, Uzbek, Tartar, Salar, Kyrkiz )
2008-04-18

MUSA MUHAMMAD DANDIKKO FROM NIGERIA said:
Alhamdu lil Lah,muslims in China have undergone a series of opposition and oppression.Despite this they retain their Islamic identity worthy of emulation by other nuslima worldwide, may Allah continue to strenghten their Iman.AMEEN
2007-07-15

NAIMULLAH ABDULLAH FROM USA said:
As-salamu Alaykum
Alhamdullah that allah has preservered this deen of islam .Its wonderful to know that we will always grow in its favor.but we must ask ourselfs what have done for Allah religion .the deen of truth.when i saw your information about china.I know now that allah religion will grow stronger inshallah
2007-07-11

BASHAR SALEH FROM INDIA said:
YOU ARE RIGHT. BUT WHO WILL TAKE THE LEADERSHIP. ALMOST ALL THE MUSLIM COUNTRIES HAVE DIVERTED THEIR POLITICAL 2KIBLA" TOWARDS USA. WHO CANHELP EXCEPT ALLAH.
WHAT ALLAH HAS SAID ABOUT QUR'AN

1. We (ALLAH) have indeed made the Quran easy to understand and remember,
then is there anyone who will remember (or receive admonition?)
Q54/Al-QAMAR/Para 27/Ayat 17)
2. And We (Allah) sent down to you the Book (the Qur'an) as exposition of everything , a guide, a Mercy, and glad tidings to those who submitted themselves (to Allah as Muslim)
Q 16/Al-Nahl/Para 14/ Ayat 89)
3. And whoever turns away blindly from the rememberance of the MOST GRACIOUS (ALLAH) (i.e. this Qur'an and worshiping Allah, we (Allah) appoint for him a shaitan to be an intimate companion to him.
Q43/Para 25/Al Zukhruf/ayat 36)

4. Verily, We (Allah) who have, without doubt sent down the message (Qur'an). And we will assuredly guard it from corruption.
Q15/Para 14/ Al Hijr/Ayat 9)
Ya Ai-ya-hul-lajina Amanood khuloo Fis-silmi Ka-af-fatan Wala Tat-tabiyuy Khutu wa-tis-Shaitani Innahoo Lakum 'Adu-um-mubin. (Q:2/208)
O Ye Who Believe ! Enter into Islam wholeheatedly; And follow not the foot-steps of the Evil one; For he is to you, An avowed enemy
Ya Aiyuhal-lazina Aamanoop La Tat-takhizoo Bita natam Min Du Nikum La Ya-mnakum Khabalas Wad-du Ma Anit-tum (Q:3/118)

O Ye who believe ! Take not into your intimacy those outside your ranks: They will not fail to corrupt you
They only desire your ruin.
In-nad-deena 'Indal-la-hil Islam (Q:3/19)

(The religion before Allah is ISLAM ( submission to His will )
12. What more do we need ?
2006-06-06

ROGER FROM USA said:
Peace be upon you,

This is a very interesting article and it is important for muslims to know their past and their diversity to be able to come together for the future.

Whether its a rosy picture of the situation of muslims in China or not is not the point here, the point is that muslims in the past, as other communities, have migrated and influenced the societies they were in.

Muslims should unite to aid their brothers and sisters in different parts of the world in intelligent and effective ways. IN addition, muslims should use this diverse network to establish and aid each other in trade, knowledge, etcc.. and all aspects of life that can revive the brotherly sense that Islam preaches.

There are many ways more priveledged muslims can help the more needy muslims, it just needs knowledge and determination. It will take the effort of every muslim, to start thinking of all their muslim fellows, and to be progressive about reaching out to them.



2004-04-03

SALIM CHISHTI FROM USA said:
bismillahir rahmanir raheem. as salaam alaykum. Yes, the article is interesting and somewhat informative, especially in showing the spread of Islam into China by means of normal human behavior such as trade. Even the Prophet (SAW) encouraged people to seek knowledge "Even as far as China" and so Islam spread there not by the sword. But we need to be careful here. The picture painted is a lot rosyer than the reality. I have spoken with people who have visited China and have muslim friends there, including a very celebrated Chinese calligrapher. The situation of Muslims in China is not good. They are being murdered by the government just like the Tibetan Buddhists are. Remember China is a Communist dictatorship, they are atheist and can stand no religion that might undermine their authority. Supreme authority in Islam is with Allah (SWT) and supreme authority in Communism is the party. Also Aramco world is a propaganda piece for the Saudis and of course they want to sell oil to China, one of the fastest growing markets. The Uighar are probably one of the most threatened Muslim groups in the world outside of the Middle east and no one hears about it because of the Party's hold on the news. But it does get out through personal contact. If you go to China you will see what the government there wants you to see unless you are corageous and get off the beaten track. wa allahu alim.
2004-04-02

FAISAL FAROOQ FROM INDIA said:
Asalaamualaikum,
Quite an interesting and informative article MashaAllah.
May Allah help us acheive what is the true Islam and spread it throughout the world for the prosperity of the whole mankind, what Prophet Muhammad(SAW) wanted.

Wasalaam,
Faisal
2002-06-30

ABDUL SHAMIM FROM WALES said:
Allhamdu-lillah Excellent website, very useful informaation, there are lot of things I learnt from the website. Those pictures of mosque in China and history of islam in China are really amazing.

And that trip to China is an excellent idea.

Please keep it up.
2002-06-27

MOHAMMED HABIB FROM IRELAND said:
dear Sirs,

It is very good that we know about our past. But we should not ignore the present of future.

Thing in Afghnistan, Palestine, Pakistan, Kashmir
should remind us " where do we stand know"

Crowing on the past is good for mental just escape.
2002-06-24

FARID ABDUL HAKIM FROM AMERICA said:
AllAh affirms that Islam is the Religion of all the Prophets and Messengers.
2002-06-22

RIFAATH ANVER FROM AUSTRALIA said:
It is very interesting and informative. Thank you.
2002-06-22

SALAHUDIN FROM USA said:
MASHA q__)__) )! May q_)_)) Guide Our Fellow Muslims In China And Show the True Path to The Rest of the Chinese People! Ameen~!

Dear Brothers and Sisters, Lets Wake up and Star Being Good Muslims! lets Follow Allah's Command in [Chapter 3 Verse 113]
'And hold fast, all of you together, to the Rope of Allh (i.e. this Qur'n), and be not divided among yourselves[], and remember Allh's Favour on you, for you were enemies one to another but He joined your hearts together, so that, by His Grace, you became brethren (in Islmic Faith), and you were on the brink of a pit of Fire, and He saved you from it. Thus Allh makes His Ayt (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.,) clear to you, that you may be guided.'

May Allah(swt) Unite Our Ummah and Connect our Hearts and Minds and Make Us True Muslims and Believers! Ya Allah! Help Our Brothers Who Are being Opprested where ever they are, and give us victory over your enemies and our enemies! Ameen!


Asalaamu Alaykum! :-)
2002-06-21