Emir Abd el-Kader: The Saintly Warrior Who Defied Empires

Emir Abd el-Kader, born Abd el-Kader ben Muhieddine al-Hasani al-Jazairi on September 6, 1808, in El Guettana, is a historical figure known for being an emir and a military leader ¹Frémeaux, J. (2008). Abd el-Kader, chef de guerre (1832-1847). Revue historique des armées, 250, 100-107. who fought against French colonial efforts in Algeria. He is recognized for his role as a religious leader and military strategist, gaining fame for his resistance to French colonization until his eventual surrender in 1847.²Bouyerdene, Ahmed. (2013). Emir Abd el-Kader: Hero and Saint of Islam. Foreword by Éric Geoffroy. Translated and with an Introduction by Gustavo Polit. Bloomington, Indiana: World Wisdom.

He died on May 26, 1883, in Damascus, in the Ottoman Empire. ³Rousset, C. (1888). LA CONQUÊTE DE L'ALGÉRIE: VIII. LE DUC D'AUMALE GOUVERNEUR-
GÉNÉRAL.—REDDITION D'ABD-EL-KADER. Revue des Deux Mondes (1829-1971), 89(3), 540-561. An emblematic figure of Algeria, Emir Abd el-Kader fought for 15 years against the French occupation of this Maghreb country. Emir Abd el-Kader was born at the beginning of the 19 th century in a zaouïa, a spiritual center, where knowledge and Muslim culture are cultivated. At the time, Algeria bordered the Sherifian Morocco and the Ottoman Empire. The country was under pressure from the military superiority of the West, which had completed its industrial revolution. ⁴Bellemare, Alexandre. (1863). Abd-el-Kader sa vie politique et militaire (p.4). Paris : Hachette.

Emir Abd el-Kader's father fought France in 1830 to defend a Muslim land. At that time, there was no nationalist spirit. In 1832, he handed over to his son. The Emir organized an embryonic state by levying taxes and enforcing laws. To resist the military might of France, he counted on French troops moving further and further into the country. The strategy didn't work, however, and by 1840 France had colonized the country. What's more, French soldiers ruined the country to weaken the Emir. ⁵Churchill, Charles Henry. (1887). Life of Abd el-Kader: Ex-Sultan of the Arabs of Algeria: written and compiled from his own dictation from other Authentic Sources. London: Chapman and Hall. (Reprint Nabu Press 2014).

Emir Abd el-Kader was defeated in 1847 and imprisoned in France. He was the one who surrendered. In fact, he had been promised that he could retire to a Muslim land, probably the Ottoman Empire. He was locked up in Amboise for four years. He never stopped reminding France of its promise to free him. The military authorities were not ready to let him go. ⁶Dupuch, A. A. (1849). Abd-el-Kader au château d’Amboise. Lausanne, Suisse : Editions Héritage.

Napoleon III freed him in 1852, with the agreement of the Ottomans.⁷Cornac, S. (2018). L'émir Abd al-Qâdir et les Ottomans: l'itinéraire du dernier grand Ayan de Damas (1832-1865). Thèse. Montréal (Québec, Canada), Université du Québec à Montréal, Doctorat en histoire. Emir Abdelkader settled in Damascus, Syria. His spiritual figure, who favored inter-religious dialogue, was confirmed. He was welcomed like a reigning prince. He even taught at the Great Mosque of Damascus. During his stay, he protected Christians who were being targeted by Muslims. ⁸Danziger, Raphael. (1977). Abd al-Qadir and the Algerians: Resistance to the French and Internal Consolidation. New York: Holmes & Meier.

Bruno Etienne presents the Emir in the following words: ⁹Étienne, B. (2008). Abdelkader (1807-1882) notre f ∴ l’émir. La chaîne d'union, 2(44), 58-67. https://doi.org/10.3917/cdu.044.0058.

“The paradox of the life of this great man, who was a saint, a scholar, a poet and a hero all at the same time, without insisting on his well-known qualities as a soldier and statesman, is that each part of his life is so full that it satisfies those who wish to highlight just one of these aspects: for example, Algerian nationalists will be satisfied with his political action, while mystics or pious Muslims will highlight his esoteric work and his behavior as both a believer and an emir...

As if one of his actions could be foreign to the other! It was because he was first and foremost a Muslim that he opposed the French for over fifteen years, and saved the Christians in 1860. He told all his visitors: “As you can see from the mirror of our conversation, I was not born to be a warrior... I never stop praying to God to let me return to my vocation”.”

Abd el-Kader was born in a family of Shorfa (descendants of the Prophet) of the Hachem tribe.

His father Muhieddine, a great notable of the Qadiriya brotherhood, ¹⁰The Qadiriyya is a Sufi mystic order founded in the 11 th century by Sheikh Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, also known as
Abdul Qadir Gilani. This brotherhood emphasizes spiritual development and the inner journey toward God, and it is known for its rich teachings and practices rooted in Islamic tradition. gave him a very complete classical Arabic education to be both a scholar in religious matters and a man of sword and horse. He took him, from 1826 to 1828, on a pilgrimage to Mecca, then visited Mohammed-Ali's Egypt with him, thus introducing him to the heart of the Arab world.

The fall of Algiers in July 1830, then that of Oran on December of the same year were the opportunity for the family, whose hostility to the Turks was notorious, to impose itself on the ruins of Ottoman domination. In November 1832, the tribes of the Mascara region proposed the title of sultan to Muhieddine, who declined this honour in favour of his son Abd el-Kader. ¹¹Dupuch, Antoine-Adolphe. (1849). Abd-el-Kader au château d'Amboise. Bordeaux: Imprimerie de H. Faye.

The confrontation with the French, who after Oran had occupied Mostaganem, was now on the agenda. At twenty-four years old, Abd el-Kader proved to be a formidable adversary through his energy and military skills. A first attempt at an agreement took place in February 1834 (Desmichels Treaty), ¹²The Treaty of Desmichels, signed on February 26, 1834, was an agreement between Abd el-Kader and French military officials led by General Desmichels. This treaty marked an attempt to establish peace in Algeria amidst the French colonial expansion in the region. As a result of the agreement, France acknowledged Abd-el-Kader as the bey (governor) of Mascara, as well as the independent sovereign ruler of Oran in Algeria. The treaty included two versions, one of which made major concessions to Abdelkader again without the consent or knowledge of the French government. This miscommunication led to a breach of the agreement when the French moved through. Cf. Gammer, Moshe. (1992). "Was General Klüge-von-Klugenau Shamil's Desmichels?" Cahiers du Monde russe
et soviétique, 33(2/3), 207–221. but was very quickly followed by a rupture. The French occupied Mascara and Tlemcen.

After his victory at Macta (June 1835), where he defeated the troops of General Trézel, Abd el-Kader suffered a setback at Sikkak in July 1836, but managed to create a vacuum around the French strongholds. In May 1837, the Treaty of Tafna, ¹³The Treaty of Tafna was signed on May 30, 1837, between Emir Abd-el-Kader and French General Thomas Robert Bugeaud. This agreement marked a significant moment in the French colonial expansion in Algeria, as it
solidified French control over the interior regions of Oran and Titteri. The Treaty of Tafna recognised the Emir's sovereignty over an independent territory. However, when French troops entered the defile of the Iron Gates, in October 1839, the Emir considered this a violation of the treaty and hostilities began again. Cf. Journal of the Statistical Society of London. (1839). An Account of Algeria, or the French Provinces in Africa. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 2(2), 115-126. negotiated by Bugeaud, recognized his control of western and central Algeria. The truce allowed him to outline, in the territories under his domination, the organization of a State in which the rigor of the principles of Islam was combined with the concern for efficiency. Taxes in accordance with Koranic principles were levied, a simple but effective administration was set up, and a small army was organized. ¹⁴Étienne, Bruno. (2003). Abdelkader. Paris: Hachette Littérature.

But the peace was fragile. Abd el-Kader could not accept the position of vassalage to which his French partners, who had taken advantage of the peace to seize Constantine and all of eastern Algeria, intended to reduce him. In 1839, the governor, Marshal Valée, taking the liberty of a highly questionable interpretation of the Treaty of Tafna, had his army cross the Iron Gates pass, on the direct road from Constantine to Algiers. ¹⁵Yver, G. (1924). Documents relatifs au traité de la Tafna. Alger : J. Carbonel. He thus crossed a territory that Abd el-Kader considered his own. The emir then decided to start the war. He quickly understood the impossibility of fighting the French army in a pitched battle, and chose to seek the exhaustion of the adversary in an interminable guerrilla war. “We will fight when we deem it appropriate, you know that we are not cowards,” he wrote to Bugeaud in June 1841. ¹⁶Emerit, M. (2002). Lettres d’Abd-el-Kader à Bugeaud. Histoire du Maghreb, 141-152. And he added:

“To oppose all the forces that you carry behind you would be madness, but we will tire them, we will harass them, we will destroy them in detail; the climate will do the rest… Do you see the wave rising when the bird brushes it with its wing? It is the image of your passage in Africa.”

Abd el-Kader, who presented himself as the champion of jihâd, succeeded in making the fight last for more than eight years against the army now commanded by Bugeaud. However, setbacks piled up. In May 1843, the Duke of Aumale and his horsemen managed to surprise and capture the smalah, the mobile camp of the emir. The latter found refuge in Morocco, but the defeat inflicted by Bugeaud on the troops of Sultan Moulay Abd er-Rahman (reign: 1822-1859) , at the Battle of Isly, ¹⁷The Battle of Isly was fought on August 14, 1844, between French forces led by Marshal Bugeaud and Moroccan troops near the Isly River. The conflict resulted in a decisive victory for the French, which compelled the Moroccan Sultan to restrain the actions of Emir Abdelkader within his empire. The Battle of Isly on the Algerian-Moroccan border, was a military conflict between French troops and Moroccan armies, led by Prince
Moulay Mohammed and made up mainly of volunteers from the great Berber tribal confederation of the Béni- Znassen, and the Ahl Angad and Bni Oukil tribes. It was linked to the French fight against Abd el-Kader ibn Muhieddine, who joined the Moroccan army and resulted in a withdrawal of Moroccan troops requested by the Sultan following the bombardment of Tangier and Mogador by the French Navy. Cf. Pennell, C. R. (2000). Morocco Since 1830: A History (p. 49). London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. near Oujda (August 1844), a few kilometers from the border, made this sanctuary very unsafe. Abd el-Kader nevertheless succeeded, from the autumn of 1845 to the spring of 1846, in a series of brilliant raids in Algerian territory, which took him to the outskirts of Algiers, but which could not call into question the victory of the colonial troops. The incessant raids by the French columns had exhausted the populations, who were less and less able to help him.¹⁸Marston, Elsa. (2013). The Compassionate Warrior: Abd El-Kader of Algeria. Bloomington, Indiana: Wisdom
Tales Press. Worried about the popularity of the Algerian leader among his subjects, and yielding to the threats of French diplomacy, theMoroccan sovereign sent his troops against him. On December 23, 1847, Abd el-Kader chose to surrender to the French. The Duke of Aumale, Bugeaud's successor, agreed to allow him to go into exile in a Muslim country, Egypt or the Turkish Empire. ¹⁹Chtatou, Mohamed. (2019). An Overview of French Colonialism in The Maghreb – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/05032019-an-overview-of-french-colonialism-in-the-maghreb-analysis/

This promise was not immediately kept, and the fall of Louis-Philippe delayed its realization. The emir and his family were successively interned at Fort Lamalgue, in Toulon, at the Château de Pau, then at that of Amboise. The vanquished, who had already won the esteem of the French generals with his warrior qualities and his indomitable energy, impressed those who met him with his dignity and piety. It was only in 1853 that Napoleon III, who had great esteem for him, decided to let him settle in Ottoman lands. Established first in Brousse, in Asia Minor, he obtained authorization in 1855 to live in Damascus, where he arrived in December of the same year, endowed with a pension from the French government which allowed him to maintain his rank as head of the small Algerian community of the city. He then devoted a large part of his time to prayer, meditation and writing, in the tradition of the great mystic Ibn Arabi (1165-1240), ²⁰Chtatou, Mohamed. (2020). Ibn ‘Arabi and The Search for Humility and Purity – Analysis. Eurasia Review. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/06022020-ibn-arabi-and-the-search-for-humility-and-purity- analysis/ whose tomb is precisely in Damascus. He did not, however, give up maintaining a vast correspondence with interlocutors of all origins and religions. ²¹Woerner-Powell, Tom. (2017). Another Road to Damascus: An integrative approach to ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī (1808–1883). Berlin: De Gruyter.

The massacre of the Christians of Syria (July 1860) puts him back at the heart of current events. ²²Abd el-Kader is credited with saving between five and ten thousand Christians during the Druze/Christian strife in Syria in 1860. He provided refuge to Christians, including the European diplomatic community, thus playing a significant role in protecting them during that tumultuous period. At the head of his Algerian warriors, he travels through Damascus and helps save thousands of people by snatching them from the rioters and placing them under his protection. In the eyes of Europeans, the image of the leader of the holy war, a loyal but irreconcilable adversary, then fades in favor of that of the man of peace and understanding.

In this regard John Kiser writes in the Washington Institute: ²³Kiser, John. (2017). A Muslim Healer For Our Time. Washington Institute. Retrieved from https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/muslim-healer-our-time#:~:text=Abdelkader%20and%20his%20sons%20organized,escorted%20to%20Lebanon%20with%20protection.

“On July 6 1860, Churchill witnessed the governor in Damascus’s punish Christians who were no longer paying the head tax. Abdelkader and his sons organized the rescue and protection of thousands in the neighboring Christian quarter, even offering bounties for Christians brought safely to his enormous French paid residence. Around 10,000 were saved over several days, many then escorted to Lebanon with protection.  Letters of gratitude poured in from around the world, one of which was from Bishop Louis Pavy in Algiers, to which the emir responded:

“That which we did for the Christians, we did to be faithful to Islamic Law, and out of respect for human rights…. The law places greatest importance on compassion and mercy and all that preserves social cohesion.” Abdelkader ended his letter with a pointed observation for today: “Those who belong to the religion of Mohammad have corrupted it, which is why they are now like lost sheep.”  His most valued letter, however, came from fellow freedom fighter, Emir Shamil, living under house arrest in Moscow:

“May the laurels of distinction always bear fruit for you...you have put into practice the words of the Prophet (to protect the innocent and minorities) and set yourself apart from those who reject his example. May God protect us from those who transgress His Law.””

Abd el-Kader receives the insignia of the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor. He is decorated by the Pope. He received Masonic initiation at the Pyramids lodge in Cairo. In Napoleon III's entourage,²⁴Vigoureux, C. (2009). Napoléon III et Abd-el-Kader. Napoleonica. La Revue, (1), 111-143 some thought of him as the sovereign of an Arab state in the East, but he shied away from this project, which was hardly feasible. He was present at the inauguration of the Suez Canal (1869), the construction of which he supported. Two years later, he provided further proof of his estrangement from politics by refusing to encourage the Algerian uprising of March 1871, ²⁵The Algerian uprising of March 1871, also known as the Mokrani Revolt, was a significant rebellion that occurred in response to the French colonization of Algeria. It began on April 19, 1871, under the leadership of Muḥammad al-Muqrānī and involved various populations in northern Algeria, particularly in the Kabylia region. The uprising was fueled by years of drought and famine, along with growing discontent towards French rule. This revolt marked the last major uprising in Kabylia during the colonial period. in which one of his sons was involved.

After his death in May 1883, the most opposing interpretations clashed. In the early 1920s, the French first saw him as the symbol of sincere rallying to France. On the other hand, Emir Khaled, one of his grandsons, invoked his memory to demand the emancipation of Muslim Algerians. Twenty years later, the controversy was even more violent when Governor General Naegelen inaugurated a commemorative monument in Cacherou, the birthplace of Abd el-Kader and the burial place of his father Muhieddine (October 1949). The nationalist press then protested against the "recovery" of a man who, for them, could be none other than the hero of the Algerian resistance. This interpretation was taken up by the government of independent Algeria. It had the remains of the Emir repatriated, solemnly placed in the El-Alia cemetery, near Algiers, on July 6, 1966. In the heart of the city, his equestrian statue replaced that of Bugeaud. It was to this representation that the Paris municipality adhered to by giving, in 2007, the name of Abd el-Kader "hero of the Algerian nation" to a square in the capital. Is this not somewhat reducing the dimension of a man who was also one of the great figures of Islam in its most universal aspect? ²⁶Pouillon, F. (2014). Abd el-Kader, héros fondateur de la nation algérienne? In Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale (pp. 124-127). Paris : La Découverte.

Humiliating and violent conquest of Algeria

French atrocities in the Maghreb, sub-Saharan Africa and Indochina were certainly numerous and despicable, but Algeria was a unique case, given the massive movement and installation of settlers on its territory and the outright annexation of this country, which was considered a fully-fledged French department for over a century (Algérie française). ²⁷Chtatou, Mohamed. (2019). Op. cit.

The conquest of Algeria by France, which spanned from 1830 to 1962, was marked by significant violence and humiliation inflicted upon the Algerian population. The French military campaigns were brutal, involving long and costly wars as they sought to dominate the region and subdue local tribes.

This process not only resulted in loss of life but also deep social and political disruption. The initial phase of colonization included violent resistance from various tribes and communities, reflecting the harsh realities of this colonial encounter. ²⁸FRÉMEAUX, Jacques. (2016). La conquête de l’Algérie. La dernière campagne d’Abd el-Kader. Paris, CNRS
Éditions.

The violent and inhumane conquest of Algeria refers to the series of brutal military campaigns and repression carried out by France beginning in 1830. The struggle involved severe violence against the local population, leading to significant casualties and suffering. It can be characterized as a colonial war marked by brutal acts, including massacres and widespread destruction, culminating in a fierce resistance from the Algerian tribes and prolonged conflict that lasted until Algeria gained independence in 1962. ²⁹The conquest of Algeria began in 1830 and involved extraordinary violence, resulting in the deaths of between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Algerians, which was a significant portion of the population at the time. The French military maintained continuous military operations in Algeria for nearly half a century following the
initial invasion, leading to widespread destruction and suffering throughout the region. Cf. Gallois, William. (2013). An Algerian Genocide?  Gallois, William (ed.), A History of Violence in the Early Algerian Colony, (pp. 145–171). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.

It is important to note that during the war, particularly in the mid-20 th century, there were instances of harsh repression, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths among the Arab population (as highlighted by various historical accounts).

Jacques Frémeaux portays the violence of the French colonizing troops in the following terms: ³⁰Frémeaux, Jacques. (2003). Guerre et violence en Algérie : 1830-1870 ; 1954-1964. Revue historique des Armées, 232, 8-19. Retrieved from https://www.persee.fr/doc/rharm_0035-
3299_2003_num_232_3_5510

“The ferocity of the French fighters is no less great, and is facilitated by their military superiority. Every battle was an occasion for real killing. During an affair pitting the column of maré¬ chal Valée against Abd el-Kader's regulars, commanded by his khalifa Ben Allai, at the end of 1839, “not a single prisoner was taken; everything was mercilessly mas¬ sacred”, recounts a young lieutenant, the future general Ducrot, who reports episode. The capture of fortified towns by force was even more atrocious: the sanglant street battle, in which bayonets left no survivors, was most often followed by wholesale pillaging, which the most rigorous officers were rarely able or willing to prevent, and from which some profited.

The raids, which French generals methodically resorted to in order to starve the Algerian tribes and force them into submission, were also the occasion for unsustainable scenes. General Le Flô confided to Victor Hugo, exiled as he was to Jersey after the Deux-Decembre, that “after the razzias, it was not uncommon to see the soldats throw to their comrades the children they received on the point of their bayonets.

They tore off women's earplugs, ears with them, and cut off fingers to get the rings”. It is all too likely that, quite frequently, looting was accompanied by rape. The fate of the prisoners can be tragic if the raid takes place in bad weather, with many perishing of hunger and cold during their forced march, or even on arrival at the camp, despite the little care we try to give them.”

On June 14, 1830, Charles X, King of France, ordered an expeditionary force to take Algiers. This expedition, known as the Expedition of Algiers (Invasion of Algeria)³¹The Expedition of Algiers in 1830 was a military campaign by France against the Regency of Algiers. It began
on July 5, 1830, with a naval bombardment led by Admiral Duperré, followed by a landing of troops commanded by Louis Auguste Victor. The objective was to establish French control over the city, which was successful, culminating in the capture of Algiers. By 1847, France had extended its control over much of Algeria. Cf. McDougall, James. (2017). A History of Algeria (p. 52). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.,  laid the foundations for the French presence in Algeria throughout the 19 th and 20 th centuries. The expedition took place in a particular political context.

The campaign ran from June 14 to July 5, 1830. It was born of specific political conditions. In 1830, the monarchical regime of Charles X was facing political protests from the streets and the Chamber of Deputies. He had to re-establish his authority over the Chamber, which he dissolved on May 16, 1830, and organized new elections. It was then that the restored king opted for a military expedition across the Mediterranean to unify the kingdom around his person. But this simple military operation set the stage for the rest of the French presence in Algeria. To what extent was the conquest of Algeria an important conquest of the reign? ³²Bouchéne, Abderrahmane, Peyroulou, Jean-Pierre, Tengour, Ouanassa Siari, & Thénault Sylvie.
(2014). Histoire de l'Algérie à la période coloniale. 1830-1962 (pp 17-44). Paris : La Découverte.

The military conquest of Algeria appears as an element of “glorification” of the July Monarchy (Monarchie de Juillet). ³³The July Monarchy (1830-1848) was a constitutional monarchy in France that lasted from July 1830 to February 1848. It was established after the July Revolution, which took place from July 27 to 29, 1830. The regime was characterized by the reign of King Louis-Philippe I, who was ultimately overthrown in 1848. It served to strengthen the dynastic and military prestige of the French kingdom.

First of all, from the year 1830, at the beginning of his reign, Louis-Philippe I (1773-1850) encountered various popular protests. The protest was such that on April 10, 1831, the State authorized the police to open fire on any gathering after 3 summonses. Violent riots that broke out in Lyon from November 20 to 22, 1831. Thus, one can see in the organization of military campaigns a way to unite the opinions of the Nation around a common cause (as Charles X (1757-1836) had done)? This military project sees France confront a vassal State of the Ottoman Empire, an empire that remains an important regional power. ³⁴Hervé, Robert. (2017). La monarchie de Juillet (pp. 11-36). Paris : CNRS éditions.

This political scheme could be part of the same logic as the Algiers expedition of 1830. This first expedition, which took place from June 14 to July 5, offered King Charles X the opportunity to restore the image of a king, to reestablish the authority of the monarch, to divert “public opinion” from the internal problems of the kingdom and to defend the economic interests of his subjects. Commercial interests were then partly threatened by the Barbary pirates of the Dey of Algiers.³⁵The Barbary pirates, also known as Barbary corsairs, operated primarily from North African ports, including Algiers. In 1785, the Dey of Algiers, Muhammad, declared war on the United States and captured several American ships, leading to a period of conflict over piracy and trade. These pirates were state-sanctioned and engaged in seizing European merchant vessels, plundering cargoes, enslaving crews, and demanding heavy ransoms. Their activities were part of a larger pattern of piracy that affected international shipping during that
era. Cf. Jamieson, Alan (2012). Lords of the Sea: A History of the Barbary Corsairs. Clerkenwell, UK : Reaction Books.  A military operation therefore seemed to be the solution to defend national interests and to unite the king’s subjects around his person. ³⁶Bouchéne, Abderrahmane, Peyroulou, Jean-Pierre, Tengour, Ouanassa Siari, & Thénault Sylvie. (2014). Op. cit.

The recovery of the Directory’s debts, as well as the diplomatic crisis between the Regency of Algiers and France were the pretexts for the invasion. For example, one can mention the spark of the crisis: the “fan affair”. ³⁷The “affair of the fan,” linked to a delay in payment by Paris to Algiers, was the diplomatic incident that enabled France to trigger the maritime blockade of Algiers (1827-1830) by the royal navy. Finally, the bombardment of La Provence (1829), a ship flying the parliamentary flag, by the batteries of Algiers was the casus belli that triggered the ‘Algiers War’ (June to July 1830). Cf. Montagnon, Pierre. (1986). La conquête de l'Algérie, les germes de la discorde 1830-1871. Paris : Pygmalion-
Gérard Watelet.

Although this mission is shown as a "Mediterranean police operation", the Algiers expedition is not enough to strengthen Charles X who is deposed in July 1830 following the "Three Glorious Days" ³⁸Bouchéne, Abderrahmane, Peyroulou, Jean-Pierre, Tengour, Ouanassa Siari, & Thénault Sylvie. (2014). Op. cit.

The July Regime which succeeded the reign of Charles de Bourbon is installed in July 1830. It is a very recent regime and structured on new bases, a new Charter. There was no longer a king of France, but a king of the French who only holds his legitimacy from the people and the charter.

A "pre-parliamentary" regime, which aimed to be the accomplishment and synthesis of the French Revolution, the Empire as well as the Ancien Régime. One can then say that Louis-Philippe saw this conquest as a way to root his dynasty and glorify this new regime by military successes. ³⁹Robert Hervé. (2017). Op. cit., p. 37.

Various members of the royal family participated in the conquest. Among these princes of blood who were at war, one finds Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans, the heir to the throne and his brother Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale. The two sons of the king distinguished themselves during the conflict as in 1835, when the Duke of Orléans triumphed in the battle of Habrah and Mascara. As for Henri d'Orléans, it is in 1843 that he distinguished himself when he managed to seize the smalah,⁴⁰Smalah refers to a gathering of tents associated with an Arab chief, which includes his family, servants, soldiers, and wealth. It originates from the Algerian Arabic term "zmâla" signifying a collective of families and
their belongings. this is the court of Abd el-kader, his moving/ambulant capital.

In addition to these military distinctions reflecting the victories of the Empire, the king and his family established cities that commemorate the names of the Orléans dynasty. This is how Philippeville was founded in 1838 in honour of the King of the French, Louis Philippe I, and Orléansville in 1843 in homage to Prince Ferdinand Philippe, who died in 1842.

The conquest of Algeria under the July Monarchy began between 1830 and 1847. It was characterized by a series of harsh and sometimes brutal military campaigns. On the other hand, the conquest was prestigious in many ways. It symbolically strengthened the new reigning royal dynasty, gave the armies a chance to shine and represented an attractive orient in a 19 th century steeped in orientalism. But the occupation of Algeria also met strategic needs. These were commercial, geopolitical and colonial in nature.

However, there was no clear policy for the “administrative colonization” of this territory. The colonization process was indeed gradual for a region that was not destined to become a colony at the time of its conquest. The army also played a key role in managing the territory.

The conquest by the July Monarchy of the former Regency of Algiers came to an end on December 23, 1847, when Emir Abd el-Kader capitulated. But Algeria's colonial history did not end there, as it went through a variety of political regimes. In February 1848, the July Monarchy was overthrown in favor of the Second Republic, which gave way to the Second Empire in 1852. Napoleon III adopted a particular colonial policy for Algeria, with the aim of turning it into an Arab kingdom. But the Third Republic, established in 1871, had a different ambition for this North African territory. ⁴¹Rousset, C. (1887). LA CONQUÊTE DE L'ALGÉRIE: LE GOUVERNEMENT DU GÉNÉRAL BUGEAUD. I. L'OFFENSIVE CONTRE ABD-EL-KADER. -OCCUPATION DE MASCARA. Revue des Deux Mondes (1829-1971), 84(4), 763-796.

Emir Abd el-Kader, an exceptional path

Who was Emir Abd el Kader? First, a little-known figure charged with nationalist romanticism in Algeria and orientalist romanticism in France. Then, a precursor of the struggles that began on November 1, 1954 in official Algerian history, but also a respected Arab fighter, whom many representations show, all draped in white, and whose spiritual writings will strike the minds of 19 th - century France.

Abdelkader Ibn Muhieddine was a prominent leader of the Algerian resistance against French colonization in the 19 th century. He became the Emir at the age of twenty and proved to be a formidable adversary to French forces following their invasion which began in 1830. His leadership and military tactics were significant in the early phases of Algeria's struggle for independence, lasting until he was eventually defeated and exiled.

A double figure, therefore, a totem too, to which the Algerian director Salem Brahimi tried to give a human dimension through a fascinating film.⁴²The documentary film directed by Salem Brahimi focuses on the life and historical significance of Emir Abd El Kader, who was born in 1808 in El Guetna, Algeria, and died in 1883 in Damascus, Syria. It explores his spiritual journey and leadership during the 19 th century, highlighting his legacy and the admiration he garnered during his time. The latter is a perspective through interviews with specialists, a reconstruction also of the life of the Emir with an elegant dressing in animated images.

Neither hagiographic nor in cold narrative dryness, Abdelkader is "told" in dialectal Arabic by the calm meditative voice of Amazigh Kateb. The documentary is punctuated by Mehdi Haddab's electronic oud, a timeless and modern melodious melting pot. The Emir, in pointillism, appears as a complex figure and in this eminently modern.

Abd el-Kader could have known the peaceful life of a spiritual leader.⁴³Zekri, M. (2013). Geoffroy Éric (dir.), Abd el-Kader. Un spirituel dans la modernité. Beyrouth, Dar Albouraq. But events decided otherwise. France chased the Turks away in 1830 after the diplomatic incident known as the "fan affair", a tortuous story of a slap that the dey of Algiers supposedly gave to the French consul. To repel the invader, the very young Abd el-Kader then became "Emir", a political, military and spiritual leader, and would deliver a long seventeen-year war to the French army, punctuated by truces.

Seventeen years during which the political intelligence of the emir would crystallize in particular in the creation of a beginning of an Algerian state, structured and moving, the smalah.

At the age of twenty, Abd el-Kader, now Emir, at the head of the Algerian resistance, quickly proved to be a formidable adversary for the French, who had gained a foothold in Algeria and were thus carrying out the conquest.

A first attempt at an agreement took place in February 1834 (Desmichels treaty), but it was a failure. The French then occupied Mascara and Tlemcen. Although Abd el-Kader won a victory at Macta in June 1835, he suffered a setback at Sikkak a year later (July 1836). In May 1837, the Treaty of Tafna, negotiated by Bugeaud, gave him control of western and central Algeria. But the peace was fragile.

On the one hand, Abd el-Kader resented the state of vassalage to which he had been reduced; on the other, the French, in the person of the governor, Marshal Valée, interpreted the treaty in their own way and allowed themselves to cross the territories ruled by the Emir, who then resumed the fighting.

In 1840, Bugeaud was appointed Governor General of Algeria. Under his impetus, the army's strength increased considerably, from 60,000 in 1840 to 107,000 in 1847. The war was merciless, with uninterrupted campaigns, forced marches and fortified posts. The Emir's troops had to be hunted down.

From 1841 onwards, columns from Mostaganem, Médéa and Oran took the main centers held by Abd el-Kader, such as his capital Mascara and the districts of Saïda and Tlemcen. Abd el-Kader retained control of the highlands. May 1843 saw the famous capture of Abd el-Kader's smalah (his retinue, his flying city) by troops led by the Duc d'Aumale, one of Louis-Philippe's sons. Abd el-Kader managed to escape to Morocco to continue his fight. But Bugeaud's defeat of Sultan Moulay Abd er-Rahman's troops at the Battle of Isly near the Moroccan border made his retreat unsafe. From autumn 1845 to spring 1846, however, he carried out a series of raids into Algerian territory, bringing him to the gates of Algiers. The Moroccan sovereign, worried by Abd el-Kader's popularity among his subjects and yielding to threats from French diplomats, launched his troops against him. Abd el-Kader chose to surrender to the French.

After his surrender, Abd el-Kader found himself imprisoned in Amboise, in violation of the promise he had been made of exile in Arab lands. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who came to power in 1848, then authorized him to leave for the "Levant", first in Turkey and then in Damascus. A life of study and spiritual refocusing began around what he called "the great jihâd", the fight against oneself and the ever more intense quest for the Sufi way, notably through the teachings of Ibn Arabi.

In Damascus, he will become the protector of the city's Christian and Jewish minorities, offering his home, but more broadly his active protection to 12,000 of them threatened by riots. A military, national, spiritual and humanist figure, Abd el-Kader will also be at the origin of advanced reflections on the law of war, in particular on the fate of prisoners of war, well before the 3 rd Geneva Convention of 1929. The Algerian documentary film director Salem Brahimi is inexhaustible on the subject.

Significance of Emir Abdelkader in colonial history

Emir Abd el-Kader holds a significant place in colonial history, particularly as a symbol of resistance against French colonial expansion in North Africa and as a model of principled leadership. His role and legacy intersect with broader themes of anti-colonial struggle, religious diplomacy, and the complexities of colonial interactions between European powers and indigenous populations.

Abd el-Kader is most famously known for leading the resistance against the French invasion of Algeria in the 1830s and 1840s. After France began its conquest of Algeria in 1830, Abd el-Kader emerged as a unifying figure among the fragmented Algerian tribes, organizing a guerrilla war against French forces. His resistance lasted from 1832 to 1847, during which time he was able to establish a semi-autonomous state in western Algeria and build a formidable army.

His military tactics, rooted in both conventional and guerrilla warfare, proved highly effective against the superior French forces for years. His leadership was not only about fighting on the battlefield but also about uniting different Algerian tribes and leading them in a national struggle for self-determination. Abd el-Kader’s efforts delayed the French colonization of Algeria and are remembered as one of the earliest organized anti-colonial movements in the modern era.

Abd el-Kader is often regarded as an early architect of Algerian nationalism. Though his struggle was rooted in Islamic principles and local tribal loyalties, his leadership marked one of the first attempts to forge a unified political entity in Algeria. His ability to unite various factions and tribes under a common cause—defending their land and faith from foreign invaders—set a precedent for later national liberation movements.

Abd el-Kader’s efforts also represented a shift from purely tribal resistance to a more centralized, organized movement that foreshadowed modern nationalist struggles across colonized regions.

Though his movement was ultimately defeated, his efforts laid the groundwork for future generations of Algerian nationalists who would eventually achieve independence from French rule in 1962.

Unlike many colonial conflicts marked by indiscriminate violence on both sides, Abd el-Kader’s resistance to French colonization is remembered for his adherence to strict ethical principles. He was known for observing Islamic laws of war, which included protecting civilians, respecting prisoners, and seeking peace when possible. Even when fighting a brutal war against a technologically superior enemy, Abd el-Kader never wavered from his principles of just warfare (jihâd) and mercy, a stark contrast to the harsh methods of French forces, which included scorched-earth tactics and mass reprisals.

His ethical conduct earned him the respect of not only his own people but also his French adversaries. After his eventual surrender in 1847, he was treated with honor by the French and later became an influential figure in French intellectual circles, demonstrating that colonial conflicts were not only military and political but also moral contests between different visions of leadership and justice.

After his surrender, Abd el-Kader lived in exile, first in France and later in Damascus. Even in exile, he continued to be an influential figure in colonial and post-colonial contexts. His dignified treatment by the French government, which offered him a pension and respect despite their previous enmity, helped to shape the narrative of the "noble enemy" in French colonial history.

Abd el-Kader’s resistance became a symbol of broader anti-colonial struggles, both in the Arab world and beyond. For Algerians, he became a national hero, representing the ideals of independence, dignity, and resistance against foreign domination. His example influenced future generations of anti-colonial leaders in Algeria, most notably during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962), when his memory was invoked as a symbol of the long struggle for freedom from French rule.

In a wider context, Abd el-Kader's fight against imperialism resonated with other colonized peoples, especially in the Arab and Muslim world, where he was viewed as an early example of Islamic leadership resisting European domination. His life and legacy have also been studied by post-colonial scholars as an example of how indigenous leaders navigated the complex dynamics of resistance, negotiation, and survival in the face of overwhelming colonial power.

Despite his role as a resistance leader, Abd el-Kader’s legacy also reflects the complexities of colonial history, where indigenous leaders often had to engage with colonial powers in ways that were not strictly confrontational. His surrender to the French in 1847, though framed as a way to save his people from further destruction, could be seen as a pragmatic decision to preserve his followers.

Additionally, his later relationship with the French, including his interactions with the French government and intellectuals, demonstrates the ambiguous nature of colonial interactions, where mutual respect sometimes coexisted with violent conflict.

Abd el-Kader’s exile and role in diplomacy reflect how colonial history was not always a straightforward narrative of resistance versus domination but also included moments of cross- cultural exchange, adaptation, and negotiation.

In colonial history, Emir Abd el-Kader stands out as a multifaceted figure: a heroic leader of anti- colonial resistance, a pioneer of proto-nationalist movements, an ethical and principled Muslim leader, and a symbol of cross-cultural diplomacy. His legacy is significant not only for Algeria but for understanding the broader dynamics of resistance and leadership in the age of European imperialism. His story reflects the challenges and complexities faced by colonized peoples and their leaders in navigating the overwhelming power of European colonial forces while maintaining their dignity, faith, and moral principles. Kiser’s “Commander of the Faithful” ⁴⁴Kiser, John W. (2008). Commander of the Faithful. The life and Times of Emir Abd-el-Kader: A story of True Jihad. Rhinebeck, New York: Monkfish Book Publishing.

John Kiser's book "Commander of the Faithful

The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" is a biography that explores the life of Emir Abd el-Kader. The book presents Abd el-Kader as a warrior-saint and highlights his role in the struggle for Algerian independence, emphasizing themes of true jihâd and moral leadership and delves into his military strategies, spiritual beliefs, and the impact he had on both Algeria and the broader Islamic world.

This well-researched and compelling biography work of the Muslim warrior-saint who led the Algerian resistance to French colonization in the mid-nineteenth century sheds light on current US involvement with a global Islam. The most famous "jihadist" of his time, Abd el-Kader was known equally for his military brilliance and his moral authority.

This outstanding piece of historical reconstruction was well-received by the critics. Indeed, for The New York Times, it is: "A dramatic story . . . any number of episodes could inspire novels . . . impossible to read without thinking of more current events." And for Times Literary Supplement: "A valuable and timely reminder . . . of that rare figure: a bridge between East and West." For Peter Steinfels, New York Times "...a dramatic story of quarreling tribes, of Sufi sects and brotherhoods, of treacherous Ottoman officials, rival French generals, secret negotiations, broken truces, terrible atrocities and new forms of insurgency and counterinsurgency warfare. Any number of episodes could inspire novels... But it is hard to read Commander of the Faithful without thinking of more recent events.” For Steve Simon, Council on Foreign Relations, it "...brings both the man and his world brilliantly to life." For Fredrick Starr, Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies "...could only have been written by someone with a profound knowledge of the French and Arab worlds..."

And last but not least, for Seyyed Hossein Nasr, University Professor of Islamic Studies, George Washington University it is "...an important book on an important subject. I hope it will reach a wide audience. I will introduce it to my fellow scholars and students."

After the unfortunate events of September 11, Islam was equated, in the West, as a religion of violence not taking the trouble to differentiate between Islamists who vow to fight the Western world and peaceful Muslims at large. In this regard, in his review of the book, Faroque Ahmad Khan writes:

“Since September 11, 2001, Muslims have been stereotyped and the message and image of Islam have been tarnished. Self-proclaimed leaders have given new and twisted meanings to the message of Islam. Explanations of complex issues have been reduced to sound bites on television. No issue has been in this regard more profaned than jihad, a sacred term for Muslims, There is no dearth of explanations regarding jihad, and in this poisonous environment John Kiser’s Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader: A Story of True Jihad was published. Once I started reading it, I could not put it down. This book is a must read for all who want to understand the true meaning and application of jihad.”

Salient aspects of the book

The salient aspects of "Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" by John Kiser revolve around the multidimensional life of Emir Abd el-Kader, a leader who combined military strategy, religious devotion, and humanitarianism. These aspects highlight his impact both as a resistance leader against French colonization and as a global symbol of justice and interfaith tolerance.

His military leadership and resistance unified Algerians against colonial France and Abd el-Kader emerged as a leader of Algerian resistance against the French colonization in the 1830s. He united various tribal factions, creating a cohesive resistance force, and organized an effective guerrilla war against the French for over a decade. His Tactical Brilliance and His military strategies, such as hit-and-run tactics, fortification building, and a focus on mobility, allowed him to fight a larger and better-equipped French army, making him a respected and formidable adversary.

Kiser highlighted his religious devotion, ethical leadership and Sufi spirituality. Indeed, Abd el-Kader was deeply influenced by Sufism, a mystical Islamic tradition that emphasizes personal spiritual development, inner peace, and ethical behavior. His religious devotion shaped his conduct both as a leader and a human being. Kiser highlighted, also, Abd el-Kader’s adherence to Islamic principles of fairness and justice, even during conflict. He treated prisoners of war with respect, avoided unnecessary violence, and followed a code of ethical conduct that impressed both his allies and enemies.

Kiser showed his humanitarianism and global recognition by his act of protection of Christians in Damascus. Indeed, one of the most celebrated incidents in Abd el-Kader’s life was his role in protecting thousands of Christians during the 1860 Damascus massacres. His intervention earned him international recognition, with figures such as Pope Pius IX, Abraham Lincoln, and Napoleon III praising his humanitarianism.

He was, no doubt, a symbol of interfaith harmony and Kiser underscores Abd el-Kader’s commitment to religious tolerance. His willingness to protect Christians during a time of religious violence made him a symbol of interfaith harmony and respect for human life, regardless of faith.

On his military demise after 15 years of resistance, Abd el-Kader surrendered to the French in 1847 under honorable terms, choosing to save his people from further suffering rather than continue a futile war. His decision reflected his pragmatism and ethical leadership. Abd el-Kader was imprisoned in France but later released by Napoleon III. He spent the remainder of his life in exile in Damascus, continuing his work as a spiritual leader and maintaining his dignity and moral influence.

Kiser, also, emphasized Abd el-Kader’s political acumen and diplomatic efforts. Indeed, he states that Abd el-Kader was not just a warrior but also a skilled diplomat. He negotiated with the French multiple times during the war and secured agreements that reflected his leadership’s legitimacy. His diplomacy ensured that his resistance had both moral and political support. The book explores how Abd el-Kader became a figure of international importance, recognized not just for his resistance to colonialism but for his ethical stance on human rights and religious tolerance.

Kiser points out, quite righly, that Abd el-Kader’s legacy was enduring, it extends far beyond Algeria.

He is remembered as a pioneer in the fight against colonialism, a model of ethical leadership, and a champion of interfaith dialogue. As such, Kiser emphasizes how Abd el-Kader was admired by both Muslims and non-Muslims worldwide for his integrity, ethical principles, and commitment to justice.

His legacy as a leader who bridged cultural and religious divides continues to inspire people today. Kiser does an excellent job of placing Abd el-Kader’s life within the larger context of French colonialism, 19 th -century geopolitics, and the clash between European imperialism and local resistance movements. The book makes a show of balanced perspective, it draws from both French and Algerian sources, providing a balanced and comprehensive view of Abd el-Kader’s life. Kiser’s portrayal of Abd el-Kader is nuanced, showing both his strengths and the challenges, he faced.

The salient aspects of "Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" focus on Abd el-Kader’s multifaceted role as a military leader, spiritual figure, and humanitarian. His combination of resistance to colonialism, ethical leadership grounded in Islamic principles, and his commitment to religious tolerance and interfaith dialogue make him an extraordinary historical figure. Kiser’s work not only provides a detailed biography but also offers timeless lessons on leadership, ethics, and the potential for cross-cultural understanding.

Kiser’s Narrative Style

John Kiser’s narrative style in "Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" is characterized by several notable qualities that contribute to the book’s accessibility, depth, and balance. It makes show of accessible and engaging prose. Indeed, he writes in a clear, straightforward manner, making the complex historical and cultural context of 19 th -century Algeria understandable to a broad audience. Despite the richness of the subject matter, he avoids overly academic language, making the biography accessible to both scholars and general readers.

His writing is engaging and fluid, drawing readers into the story of Emir Abd el-Kader's life without overwhelming them with excessive detail or jargon. One of Kiser’s strengths is his balanced portrayal of Abd el-Kader and the historical context in which he lived. He presents both Algerian and French perspectives, providing a comprehensive view of the conflict between Abd el-Kader’s forces and the French colonial army.

Kiser is careful not to idealize Abd el-Kader, portraying him as a complex, multidimensional figure who was not without flaws. He presents Abd el-Kader’s successes and challenges with nuance, showing him as a human being grappling with difficult decisions, such as his eventual surrender to the French.

Kiser places a strong emphasis on historical accuracy and context, providing readers with a detailed backdrop of 19 th -century Algeria, French colonialism, and the broader geopolitical forces at play. He delves into the intricacies of colonial expansion, the impact on Algerian society, and the religious and political dynamics of the time. The historical context is presented in a way that enhances the story of Abd el-Kader without overwhelming the reader with dry facts. Kiser blends historical narrative with personal storytelling, making the events of the time more relatable and vivid.

Kiser’s narrative is deeply character-driven, with a strong focus on Abd el-Kader’s personal qualities of moral leadership, such as his piety, humility, and ethical leadership. The book is as much about Abd el-Kader’s moral and spiritual development as it is about his military campaigns or political maneuvers. He emphasizes the spiritual dimension of Abd el-Kader’s life, exploring how his deep commitment to Sufism and Islamic teachings shaped his leadership and worldview. Kiser’s portrayal of Abd el-Kader highlights his moral courage and his role as a model of ethical leadership in both war and peace.

On the subject of the humilty of the Emir, Henri Teissier writes:

“His humanism is also revealed in the simplicity of his life. And what he imposes on himself in this area, he also demands of his family and his colleagues. His biographers are unanimous in mentioning the occasions when he imposed on his loved ones to respect this simplicity of life. It is even said that when he returned from Ain Mâdi, he blamed his wife who had enriched the interior of their living space. This simplicity is also noted in the food he eats and in his clothing. Furthermore, on several occasions his interlocutors from the French camp emphasize that the Emir receives them quite simply, sitting on the ground, sheltered by a tree.”

Kiser effectively blends historical biography with human interest elements, making Abd el-Kader’s story not just about historical events but also about the emotions, motivations, and inner life of a remarkable leader. Through the use of anecdotes, personal letters, and accounts from those who knew Abd el-Kader, Kiser brings his subject to life in a personal and intimate way, helping readers connect with the Emir on a deeper level.

The book is well-paced, with a clear structure that moves through the different phases of Abd el-Kader’s life: his early education, rise as a leader, resistance against French colonialism, eventual surrender, exile, and later life in Damascus. Kiser uses this structure to build a cohesive narrative, ensuring that each phase of Abd el-Kader’s life is given appropriate attention, while also maintaining momentum and interest.

Kiser draws on a wide range of primary and secondary sources, including French colonial archives, Algerian records, personal letters, and accounts from contemporaries of Abd el-Kader. This gives the narrative depth and a sense of historical authenticity. His use of sources from both French and Algerian perspectives provides balance, showing the complexities of the colonial encounter and offering insights into both sides of the conflict.

Throughout the book, Kiser emphasizes timeless themes such as justice, religious tolerance, leadership, and the ethical conduct of war. These themes resonate beyond the specific historical moment of Abd el-Kader’s life, making the book relevant to modern discussions about leadership, ethics, and intercultural understanding.

Kiser’s ability to draw connections between the historical figure of Abd el-Kader and contemporary issues gives the book an added layer of significance, showing how Abd el-Kader’s legacy still holds lessons for the present day.

Algeria Kiser’s narrative style in "Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" is a careful balance of historical detail, character-driven storytelling, and ethical reflection. His accessible writing, combined with a nuanced portrayal of both Abd el-Kader and the broader historical context, makes the book both informative and inspiring. He succeeds in portraying Abd el-Kader as a complex and admirable figure whose life and legacy continue to offer valuable insights into leadership, spirituality, and human rights.

Key Themes of the Book

"Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" by John Kiser is a deeply researched biography that explores the life, leadership, and legacy of Emir Abd el-Kader (1808-1883), one of Algeria's most revered figures. Abd el-Kader was a warrior, scholar, diplomat, and a Sufi spiritual leader who led the resistance against French colonial forces in Algeria and later became an international symbol of justice, chivalry, and interfaith harmony.

Early Life and Education: Abd el-Kader was born into a prominent religious family in the town of Mascara, Algeria. His father was a respected Islamic scholar and leader of a Sufi brotherhood, which provided him with a strong foundation in Islamic learning and spirituality.

He was well-versed in the Qur’ân, Islamic law, and theology, and had a deep grounding in Sufism, which influenced his moral and ethical leadership later in life.

Leadership and Resistance to French Colonization: In 1832, as France began its colonial expansion in Algeria, Abd el-Kader was chosen by tribal leaders to lead the resistance. Under his leadership, he united the fragmented tribes of Algeria and conducted a decade-long guerrilla war against the French.

Kiser emphasizes Abd el-Kader’s strategic brilliance in warfare and his use of diplomacy. Despite facing a technologically superior French army, he led a successful and sustained resistance that garnered widespread admiration.

Ethical Leadership and Humanitarianism: One of the most notable aspects of Abd el-Kader’s leadership was his commitment to ethical conduct, even in war. He treated prisoners of war with respect, offered fair treatment to captives, and was known for his compassion toward civilians.

The book highlights his commitment to Islamic principles of justice, mercy, and fairness. Abd el-Kader’s humane treatment of enemies earned him respect even from the French and other Western observers.

Surrender and Exile: In 1847, facing overwhelming odds and the destruction of his homeland, Abd el-Kader made the decision to surrender to the French on honorable terms. He was imprisoned in France for several years but was eventually freed by Napoleon III in 1852.

After his release, he lived in exile in Damascus, Syria, where he continued to command respect and play a prominent role in interfaith dialogue and diplomacy.

The Damascus Incident and Religious Tolerance: One of the most famous incidents in Abd el-Kader's later life was his intervention during the 1860 civil conflict in Damascus. When violent anti-Christian pogroms broke out, Abd el-Kader sheltered thousands of Christians in his home and used his influence to protect them from massacre.

Kiser emphasizes how this act of compassion transcended religious boundaries and made Abd el-Kader a global symbol of interfaith harmony. He received international accolades, including recognition from Pope Pius IX, Abraham Lincoln, and Queen Victoria for his humanitarian actions.

Global Recognition and Legacy: Abd el-Kader’s legacy extends far beyond Algeria. Kiser explores how his leadership was respected globally, with European powers and American statesmen admiring his commitment to justice and tolerance.

His profound sense of morality, rooted in Sufism and Islamic values, continues to be seen as an example of ethical leadership, especially in times of conflict.

What does Kiser's book teach us?

The book "Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" by John Kiser provides several important lessons, particularly related to leadership, ethics, spirituality, and intercultural dialogue. Through the life of Emir Abd el-Kader, a complex figure who embodied both military resistance and humanitarianism, Kiser draws out lessons that resonate with both historical and contemporary contexts. Here's what the book teaches us:

Abd el-Kader's leadership was rooted in moral integrity and Islamic ethics. Even during war, he maintained principles of fairness, treating prisoners of war humanely and avoiding unnecessary violence. His decision to surrender, to avoid further suffering for his people, shows the importance of balancing pragmatism and ethics in leadership. The book teaches that true leadership is not only about achieving victory but also about maintaining dignity and honor in the face of adversity. Abd el-Kader’s decisions were guided by a moral compass, making him a role model for ethical leadership in time of crisis.

One of the most powerful lessons from Abd el-Kader’s life is his commitment to religious tolerance.

Despite being a devout Muslim, he went out of his way to protect Christians during the Damascus pogrom of 1860, sheltering thousands of them and risking his life to prevent religious violence. This act of compassion teaches the value of interfaith respect and the need to stand up for justice, regardless of religious or cultural differences. It illustrates how spiritual leaders can play a pivotal role in bridging divides between faiths.

The book highlights Abd el-Kader’s resistance to French colonialism as a demonstration of resilience in the face of colonialism and the fight for national sovereignty. Abd el-Kader united Algerian tribes and led a sustained resistance for over a decade against a much stronger colonial power. His resilience shows the power of unity, strategic thinking, and perseverance in the face of oppression. It serves as a reminder of the importance of standing up for justice, even when the odds seem insurmountable.

Abd el-Kader is celebrated not only for his military tactics but also for his humanitarianism during war. He provided safe passage for civilians, treated captives with dignity, and abided by the principles of Islamic law concerning warfare, such as protecting non-combatants. This teaches a critical lesson about the humanity in conflict—even in the harshest circumstances, leaders must uphold ethical standards and prioritize the welfare of innocent people.

Abd el-Kader’s deep commitment to Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, profoundly influenced his leadership and decision-making. His spiritual discipline enabled him to remain calm, patient, and wise even during turbulent times. The book teaches the value of spirituality in leadership. By grounding himself in spiritual principles, Abd el-Kader was able to make decisions that balanced worldly concerns with deeper, ethical, and moral considerations.

Abd el-Kader’s courageous actions in Damascus—protecting Christians from a violent mob—demonstrate the importance of standing up for the oppressed, even when it involves personal risk. His commitment to justice transcended religious boundaries, and he acted on his conviction that protecting human life was paramount. The lesson here is that leaders must have the courage to defend the vulnerable, no matter the cost or the identity of those in need.

Abd el-Kader’s life shows the potential for cross-cultural influence and global respect. He earned the admiration of figures like Abraham Lincoln, Napoleon III, and Pope Pius IX because of his moral conduct and humanitarian principles. This aspect of his life teaches that values of justice, respect, and ethical behavior are universal, transcending cultural and religious boundaries. Leaders who uphold these values can achieve global influence and respect, no matter their background.

Throughout his resistance, Abd el-Kader also engaged in diplomacy with the French, demonstrating that effective leadership often involves a balance between war and negotiation. He knew when to fight and when to negotiate, showing the importance of adaptability and the power of dialogue. The book highlights that negotiation, dialogue, and peace-making are essential tools in a leader's repertoire. Abd el-Kader’s willingness to compromise, when necessary, without sacrificing his principles, demonstrates the value of diplomacy.

Despite his global recognition and respect, Abd el-Kader remained humble and focused on serving others, both in his leadership of Algeria and later in his exile. He understood that leadership was a form of service, not a quest for power. This teaches the importance of humility in leadership—leaders who act with humility and serve the common good are more likely to leave lasting legacies of respect and admiration.

Abd el-Kader’s legacy extends beyond his immediate context of resistance to colonialism. His actions, rooted in ethical principles and religious tolerance, continue to inspire people today in discussions about leadership, justice, and peace. The book teaches that a leader's legacy is not just determined by their immediate successes but by the long-term values they promote and how they inspire future generations.

Kiser’s "Commander of the Faithful" teaches valuable lessons about ethical leadership, religious tolerance, humanitarianism, and resilience in the face of injustice. Abd el-Kader’s life serves as a powerful example of how leaders can navigate conflict with moral integrity, defend the oppressed, and leave a legacy of justice that resonates across cultures and eras. Through the story of Abd el-Kader, Kiser illustrates that true leadership is grounded in ethics, compassion, and the courage to stand for what is right.

Kiser uses Abd el-Kader’s story to show how a leader can maintain moral integrity in the face of conflict, how religious and cultural divides can be bridged through compassion, and how lasting legacies are built on service and humility. The book not only serves as a historical biography but also as a guide for modern leaders, offering timeless lessons on justice, courage, and respect for all humanity.

Kiser's Portrayal

John Kiser’s portrayal of Emir Abd el-Kader in "Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" is a deeply respectful and nuanced depiction of a complex figure. Kiser’s writing style complements this portrayal, balancing historical analysis with engaging storytelling. Below is an exploration of both Kiser's portrayal of Abd el-Kader and his distinctive narrative style:

A Balanced and Humanized Portrayal: Kiser presents Abd el-Kader as a multifaceted leader—a spiritual figure, a military commander, a diplomat, and a humanitarian. He avoids turning Abd el-Kader into a flawless hero; instead, he depicts him as a real person who faced difficult choices and made sacrifices for the sake of his people.

Abd el-Kader is portrayed as a man of strong moral conviction, rooted in his Islamic faith and Sufi teachings. He is shown as deeply ethical, whether in his conduct during war or in his decision to protect Christians in Damascus. But Kiser also acknowledges Abd el-Kader's pragmatism, illustrating his strategic decision-making and diplomatic acumen when negotiating with the French.

Spirituality and Ethics at the Core: Kiser emphasizes the central role of Abd el-Kader’s spirituality in shaping his character. He was a devout Muslim and a follower of Sufism, and these spiritual traditions profoundly influenced his actions as a leader. Kiser portrays Abd el-Kader as someone who sought to harmonize his religious principles with his political and military responsibilities.

Abd el-Kader’s ethical leadership is a key theme in the book. Kiser presents him as a figure who transcended the usual divisions of his time, respecting human dignity regardless of religion or nationality.

His protection of Christians in Damascus is one of the defining moments Kiser highlights to demonstrate his universal ethics.

A Leader of Global Recognition: Kiser portrays Abd el-Kader as a leader who, despite his local origins, had global significance. He was admired by contemporaries such as Abraham Lincoln, Napoleon III, and Pope Pius IX, and he was seen as a model of moral leadership by people across different cultures.

Kiser emphasizes the international recognition Abd el-Kader received for his conduct in war and peace, illustrating that his legacy transcends Algeria. This portrayal aligns with Kiser’s broader message about Abd el-Kader being a timeless symbol of ethical leadership and religious tolerance.

Resilience and Resistance: Abd el-Kader’s role as a resistance leader is given considerable attention. Kiser explores how Abd el-Kader united various Algerian tribes to resist French colonialism, showing both his military prowess and his political acumen. But Kiser also portrays the limitations of this resistance, showing how Abd el-Kader made the painful decision to surrender when he realized further fighting would only harm his people more. Through, this portrayal, Kiser presents Abd el-Kader as a leader who balanced idealism and realism, resisting colonization while also recognizing the need for compromise.

Is Kiser's book a defense of Islam against attacks levelled in the West?

John W. Kiser's “Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader” can be seen, to some extent, as a response to Western misconceptions and negative stereotypes of Islam, but it is not primarily a polemical defense of Islam. Rather, it presents the life of Abd el-Kader as an embodiment of Islamic principles, offering a nuanced and humanized portrayal of Islam through his character, actions, and faith.

Humanizing Islam Through Abd el-Kader:

Kiser's book serves to humanize Islam by telling the story of a Muslim leader who exemplifies the highest ethical standards of his faith. Abd el-Kader is portrayed as deeply committed to the spiritual and moral teachings of Islam, particularly the values of justice, compassion, tolerance, and respect for others, including non-Muslims. Indeed, the Emir had issued the following decree to the effect of protecting Christian prisoners during the French conquest war:

"It is decreed that any Arab who brings a French soldier or a Christian, safe and sound, will receive a reward of 40 francs for men and 50 francs for a woman. Any Arab having a Frenchman or a Christian in his possession is held responsible for the way in which he is treated. He is furthermore required, under penalty of the most severe sanction, to conduct the prisoner without delay either to the nearest khalifa, or before the sultan himself."

His protection of Christians during the Damascus massacre of 1860, for instance, is a powerful example that Kiser uses to challenge Western narratives that paint Islam as inherently violent or intolerant.

Islam as a Source of Ethical Leadership: Kiser highlights how Abd el-Kader’s Islamic faith shaped his ethical leadership. Abd el-Kader is shown as strictly adhering to Islamic rules of warfare (jihad), which emphasize the protection of non-combatants and the ethical treatment of prisoners, in stark contrast to the often-brutal conduct of colonial forces. Kiser subtly contrasts the Emir's moral leadership with that of his French adversaries, suggesting that Islam, as practiced by Abd el-Kader, offers a model of ethical governance and principled resistance.

Islam and Sufism as Sources of Wisdom: A significant part of Kiser’s narrative involves Abd el-Kader’s devotion to Sufi mysticism, a branch of Islam that emphasizes inner spirituality and a direct, personal relationship with God. This dimension of the Emir’s life is portrayed as a source of his strength, wisdom, and resilience. By emphasizing Sufism, Kiser offers a counter-narrative to the more sensationalized depictions of Islam in Western media, which often focus on extremist interpretations. Kiser shows that Abd el-Kader’s spirituality, rooted in Islamic traditions, was inclusive, humane, and focused on self-discipline and humility.

Challenging Stereotypes of Islam and Violence: Kiser does not directly argue against Islamophobic views prevalent in the West, but through his portrayal of Abd el-Kader, he challenges stereotypes that associate Islam with violence and intolerance. Abd el-Kader’s strict observance of ethical warfare and his willingness to negotiate peace stand in contrast to the common Western perception of jihad as synonymous with terrorism or aggression. The Emir’s principled surrender, motivated by his desire to prevent unnecessary bloodshed, is depicted as a courageous act rooted in his Islamic values, underscoring Islam’s capacity for mercy and pragmatism in conflict.

Interfaith Dialogue and Mutual Respect: Kiser’s narrative also emphasizes Abd el-Kader’s commitment to interfaith dialogue and respect for religious diversity. After his release from French captivity, Abd el-Kader lived in exile in Damascus, where he advocated for understanding between Christians and Muslims. His actions during the Damascus massacre, where he saved thousands of Christians, were not just humanitarian but also rooted in his belief in the shared humanity of all people, regardless of faith. Kiser uses this episode to illustrate how Islamic principles can support peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different religious communities.

An Indirect Defense of Islam: Rather than an explicit defense of Islam in response to Western attacks, Kiser’s approach is more subtle and literary. By focusing on the life of Abd el-Kader, Kiser presents a lived example of Islam’s moral and ethical dimensions. The book does not engage in direct apologetics but instead allows Abd el-Kader’s story to serve as a rebuttal to the simplistic and often hostile views of Islam prevalent in the West. Through Abd el-Kader’s actions, Kiser demonstrates that Islam, when practiced faithfully, can lead to profound acts of mercy, justice, and humanity.

In sum, while “Commander of the Faithful” is not overtly framed as a defense of Islam, it clearly seeks to challenge Western stereotypes about the religion by offering a positive and nuanced portrayal of Abd el-Kader as a devout Muslim who embodied the highest ideals of his faith. Kiser’s narrative is more of an invitation to the Western reader to reconsider their understanding of Islam by seeing it through the life and legacy of a man who lived by its ethical and spiritual teachings.

Many will believe that Kiser’s book is a historical account of the life and times of Abd el-Kader and his struggle to defend his country and faith from the encroachment of French colonialism and Western religious acculturation. Did not the French always say and stress that “l’Algérie est française” (Algeria is a French department). This book indirectly sets the record right: Algeria does not belong to France but to Algerians and Algerians are Muslim by creed, culture and color.

His work highlights the qualities of this scholar, warrior and mystic, who was an extraordinary man. Having stood up to the French armies from 1832 to 1847, he embraced the destiny of an independent Algeria and became a link between East and West. An initiator of humanitarian law and founder of a modern state, an opponent of colonialism but a friend of Napoleon III, an advocate of modern Islam and a spirituality of brotherhood, he was a rare figure of openness to others, conciliation and respect for religions.

Jihâd has wrongly been described as religious violence and as a means of invading territories to convert the population to Islam by the force of sabers. In Arabic, the term "jihâd"; (جهاد) literally means "striving" or "effort." It encompasses a range of meanings, including a personal struggle for self-improvement in devotion to Islam, as well as, in a broader sense, striving against injustice or oppression. Jihad can encompass both personal spiritual growth and broader social or military endeavors, although it has been significantly politicized in contemporary contexts.

Jihâd is a religious duty within Islam. In Arabic, the term means “self-sacrifice”, “effort”, “struggle” or “resistance”.  In European languages, it is often translated as “holy war ‘or ’combat in the way of God”.

However, it is not a war of extermination. The word jihâd is used several times in the Koran, often in the idiomatic expression “al-ǧihād bi amwalikum wa anfusikum”, which can be translated a“fight with your goods and your souls”. Thus, jihâd can also be defined by the expression “make an effort in the path of God”.

In the outright presentation of jihâd in Islam, Norman C. Rothman argues:

“Throughout the history of Islam, the emphasis on internal struggle or striving against one’s self has also been important as is the related idea that striving to learn Islam is essential to both the here and now as well as the hereafter. The emphasis on striving in turn can be subdivided. It can refer to external and internal striving. Even in terms of opposition to others in defense of the faith in a militant way, external jihad can be carried out through economic, political, legal, and diplomatic means. If these fail, the military form of jihad is authorized (it should be noted in passing that the Arabic word for war is al-harb not al-jihad). The military aspect of jihad is comparatively rare. It must be sanctioned or declared by the proper authority and people deemed to be innocent such as women, children, and the chronically ill must not be harmed.

Even if military action occurs, peaceful proposals from the enemy must be considered. In general, until the rise of radical groups, a jihad was not always declared against other religions even if military action took place. Only when there were calls for a just war as in the Crusades or in campaigns against the Sassanians or the Byzantines was “jihad of the sword” invoked. Many scholars stress the internal struggle for self-control and betterment as the predominant form of jihad. Within internal striving of jihad is the striving or struggle against one’s self. This striving is known as al-nafs and is subdivided into four kinds. For example, here is a complete verse or sura, Sura 29:69).’’

John Kiser's book, "Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader", is a detailed biography of Emir Abd el-Kader (1808–1883), an Algerian leader, military strategist, scholar, and spiritual figure who is celebrated for his resistance to French colonization in the 19 th century. Emir Abd el-Kader is known not only for his military leadership but also for his humanitarianism, tolerance, and deep commitment to Islamic values, earning him respect from both Muslims and non-Muslims worldwide.

Abd el-Kader was born into a prominent Algerian family known for its scholarly and religious background. He was well-educated in Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and the Qur'ân from an early age. He rose to prominence in the 1830s when Algerians sought a leader to unite them against French colonial forces. Abd el-Kader was chosen as the "Emir" and led a fierce resistance against the French occupation.

One of the central elements of Kiser's book is Abd el-Kader's role as a military leader. He effectively used guerrilla warfare tactics to challenge the technologically superior French forces. Although Abd el-Kader eventually surrendered in 1847 after 15 years of resistance, he became a symbol of dignity, resilience, and honor for the Algerian people. The book provides a nuanced portrayal of his military campaigns, emphasizing both his strategic brilliance and his ethical conduct, even toward his enemies.

Kiser highlights Abd el-Kader's reputation as a humanitarian. Despite the brutal conflict with the French, he was known for his fair treatment of prisoners of war, including European captives, which earned him admiration even from his adversaries. His deep commitment to Islamic teachings, particularly the principles of justice, mercy, and tolerance, is a key theme in the book. Abd el-Kader's respect for religious diversity and his efforts to protect Christians and Jews during times of conflict are also explored.

The book emphasizes Abd el-Kader’s advocacy for religious tolerance, which was demonstrated most notably when he sheltered thousands of Christians in Damascus during an anti-Christian pogrom in 1860. His actions were recognized internationally, and he was hailed as a "Commander of the Faithful" for Muslims and a protector of Christians.

Kiser explores Abd el-Kader's commitment to Sufism, a mystical Islamic tradition, and how it shaped his views on spirituality, ethics, and governance. His ability to bridge the gap between Islamic principles and universal humanitarian values is one of the key reasons for his enduring legacy. Abd el-Kader’s reputation extended far beyond Algeria. In the book, Kiser discusses how figures such as Abraham Lincoln, Pope Pius IX, and Napoleon III expressed admiration for his character and actions. His time in exile in France after his surrender, and later his life in Damascus, show his ability to maintain his dignity and continue to be a respected figure despite being removed from power.

John Kiser brings to light many little-known aspects of Abd el-Kader's life through extensive research, drawing on historical documents, letters, and accounts from French, Algerian, and other international sources. Kiser presents Abd el-Kader as not just a political and military leader but as a figure of global significance, whose values and legacy remain relevant in today's discussions on leadership, resistance, and interfaith dialogue.

"Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader" has received positive feedback, with an average rating of 4.6 out of 5 stars based on 60 reviews. The book explores the life of Emir Abd el-Kader, a significant historical figure known for his leadership and resistance against French colonialism in Algeria during the 19 th century. Readers appreciate the depth of research and the engaging narrative style, which provides both historical context and personal insights into Abd el- Kader's character and achievements.

For Kiser, Abd el-Kader was not only a saint-warrior but a man who believed in the supremacy of knowledge:

“Abdelkader believed that pursuing knowledge was the highest good and life’s ultimate purpose because it leads people to right conduct. His world was one of hierarchy, affecting both social relations and knowledge which was hierarchical. In his 1856 “Letter to the French,” written at the request of the Asian Society of Paris, the emir laid out his understanding of what made humanity different from the rest of creation: Man’s love of knowledge and pursuit of truths that transcend the senses — the truths of mathematics, geometry, philosophy and the moral truths.⁴⁵Kiser, John W. (2024). A Role Model for Our Time. Islamic Horizons. Retrieved from https://islamichorizons.net/a-role-model-for-our-time/

Yet the most important form of knowledge, he believed, was that which he called “political.” Why?

Because relationships matter. We are social animals and therefore need to cooperate with others to survive. For the emir, no knowledge was more important than that needed for living harmoniously in the polis and guiding human behavior justly.”

You can follow Professor Mohamed Chtatou on X: @Ayurinu